Men (1977, 1981, 1985) (% of those aged between 15 and retirement age (not in education))
Men (% of those aged between 15 and retirement age (not in education))
Women (1977, 1981, 1985) (% of those aged between 15 and retirement age (not in education))
Women (% of those aged between 15 and retirement age (not in education))
'77
78.5
19.5
'78
'79
'80
'81
78.5
19.5
'82
'83
'84
'85
71.8
23.2
'86
'87
'88
'89
76.3
29.3
'90
76.5
31.5
'91
76.9
33.6
'92
76.5
35.2
'93
75.4
36.2
'94
75.1
37.1
'95
76.7
38.6
'96
76.8
39.7
'97
77.8
41.5
'98
78.4
42.2
'99
80.0
44.3
'00
80.3
45.5
'01
80.5
46.7
'02
79.9
47.3
'03
78.4
47.5
'04
77.8
48.2
'05
78.2
49.0
'06
79.1
50.5
'07
80.2
53.0
'08
80.7
54.5
'09
79.2
54.8
'10
78.4
55.4
'11
78.9
56.5
'12
78.2
56.8
'13
77.3
56.7
'14
77.5
57.1
'15
78.2
57.9
'16
79.0
59.3
'17
79.7
60.7
'18
80.8
62.5
'19
81.4
64.0
'20
80.3
64.4
'21
81.5
66.5
'22
82.7
68.8
Economic independence
Year
Men (1977, 1981, 1985) (% of those aged between 15 and retirement age (not in education))
Men (% of those aged between 15 and retirement age (not in education))
Women (1977, 1981, 1985) (% of those aged between 15 and retirement age (not in education))
Women (% of those aged between 15 and retirement age (not in education))
'77
78.5
19.5
'78
'79
'80
'81
78.5
19.5
'82
'83
'84
'85
71.8
23.2
'86
'87
'88
'89
76.3
29.3
'90
76.5
31.5
'91
76.9
33.6
'92
76.5
35.2
'93
75.4
36.2
'94
75.1
37.1
'95
76.7
38.6
'96
76.8
39.7
'97
77.8
41.5
'98
78.4
42.2
'99
80.0
44.3
'00
80.3
45.5
'01
80.5
46.7
'02
79.9
47.3
'03
78.4
47.5
'04
77.8
48.2
'05
78.2
49.0
'06
79.1
50.5
'07
80.2
53.0
'08
80.7
54.5
'09
79.2
54.8
'10
78.4
55.4
'11
78.9
56.5
'12
78.2
56.8
'13
77.3
56.7
'14
77.5
57.1
'15
78.2
57.9
'16
79.0
59.3
'17
79.7
60.7
'18
80.8
62.5
'19
81.4
64.0
'20
80.3
64.4
'21
81.5
66.5
'22
82.7
68.8
Sharpest increases in the 1980s and 1990s
Proportionally, the largest increase in economically independent women occurred in the 1980s and 1990s, when labour force participation among women rose sharply. A relatively high number of women also became economically independent following the 2009-2013 economic crisis. That was partly due to women starting to work more hours per week.
The share of economically independent men follows the business cycle, as men are more likely than women to work in cyclical sectors, such as construction and ICT. The share of economically independent men reached a low point in 1985, during the recession of the 1980s. It also declined in the previous economic crisis and during the COVID pandemic, in 2020.
Largest increase in economic independence among those over 60
In successive generations of women, the share of those who are economically independent has increased in each age group. This share has increased the most among women aged 60 to 64, in proportional terms. For example, in the generation of women born before 1930, only 5 percent were economically independent at the age of 61. Among women born between 1960 and 1974, this share was ten times higher at nearly 50 percent. Contributory factors include the fact that women are working more often and for more hours, and their increased level of education.
Economic independence of women
Leeftijd
Born before 1930 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1930-1944 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1945-1959 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1960-1974 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1975-1989 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
Born in 1990 and after (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
20
50.8
36.0
38.5
52.9
21
52.3
52.3
55.2
62.9
22
51.7
62.5
64.5
68.7
23
50.1
65.5
68.0
72.6
24
47.2
66.0
71.4
75.4
25
41.1
66.1
71.7
77.1
26
40.6
65.3
72.1
77.9
27
34.2
62.6
72.0
78.0
28
29.0
59.9
71.4
77.7
29
25.1
56.5
70.9
77.1
30
26.6
55.2
70.4
77.3
31
26.5
53.5
70.0
77.5
32
27.8
52.2
69.9
33
14.2
29.1
52.0
69.2
34
14.9
29.7
51.9
68.6
35
13.7
29.8
52.3
68.2
36
14.0
30.9
53.4
68.1
37
14.9
32.8
54.2
68.1
38
14.5
33.3
54.5
68.5
39
13.2
34.6
55.5
68.9
40
14.8
35.9
56.2
69.4
41
15.6
38.2
57.3
69.9
42
16.1
39.0
58.0
70.4
43
15.1
39.5
59.2
70.9
44
15.4
40.3
60.0
71.2
45
16.9
41.9
61.0
72.1
46
19.2
43.4
61.9
73.0
47
20.4
43.8
62.9
48
12.1
22.3
44.6
62.7
49
10.4
22.4
45.0
62.5
50
11.4
22.1
45.1
62.3
51
12.6
22.0
45.9
62.3
52
11.8
22.5
45.5
61.7
53
9.9
21.2
44.6
61.0
54
10.5
20.0
44.2
60.3
55
9.3
19.0
43.0
59.5
56
9.5
18.5
41.7
58.5
57
9.0
16.9
40.6
57.4
58
8.5
15.4
39.2
56.0
59
7.8
13.8
37.5
54.1
60
6.7
10.9
34.5
52.0
61
4.7
7.7
31.4
49.3
62
3.7
5.8
27.6
63
3.1
4.9
22.6
64
2.6
4.2
21.9
Economic independence of women
Leeftijd
Born before 1930 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1930-1944 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1945-1959 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1960-1974 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1975-1989 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
Born in 1990 and after (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
20
50.8
36.0
38.5
52.9
21
52.3
52.3
55.2
62.9
22
51.7
62.5
64.5
68.7
23
50.1
65.5
68.0
72.6
24
47.2
66.0
71.4
75.4
25
41.1
66.1
71.7
77.1
26
40.6
65.3
72.1
77.9
27
34.2
62.6
72.0
78.0
28
29.0
59.9
71.4
77.7
29
25.1
56.5
70.9
77.1
30
26.6
55.2
70.4
77.3
31
26.5
53.5
70.0
77.5
32
27.8
52.2
69.9
33
14.2
29.1
52.0
69.2
34
14.9
29.7
51.9
68.6
35
13.7
29.8
52.3
68.2
36
14.0
30.9
53.4
68.1
37
14.9
32.8
54.2
68.1
38
14.5
33.3
54.5
68.5
39
13.2
34.6
55.5
68.9
40
14.8
35.9
56.2
69.4
41
15.6
38.2
57.3
69.9
42
16.1
39.0
58.0
70.4
43
15.1
39.5
59.2
70.9
44
15.4
40.3
60.0
71.2
45
16.9
41.9
61.0
72.1
46
19.2
43.4
61.9
73.0
47
20.4
43.8
62.9
48
12.1
22.3
44.6
62.7
49
10.4
22.4
45.0
62.5
50
11.4
22.1
45.1
62.3
51
12.6
22.0
45.9
62.3
52
11.8
22.5
45.5
61.7
53
9.9
21.2
44.6
61.0
54
10.5
20.0
44.2
60.3
55
9.3
19.0
43.0
59.5
56
9.5
18.5
41.7
58.5
57
9.0
16.9
40.6
57.4
58
8.5
15.4
39.2
56.0
59
7.8
13.8
37.5
54.1
60
6.7
10.9
34.5
52.0
61
4.7
7.7
31.4
49.3
62
3.7
5.8
27.6
63
3.1
4.9
22.6
64
2.6
4.2
21.9
Decline in women’s economic independence at around the age of 30 has almost disappeared
In the generation of women born between 1945 and 1959, the number who were economically independent declined among those younger than 30. It then rose between the ages of 35 and 49, before declining once again. In the subsequent generation of women, born between 1960 and 1974, the share of economically independent women rose among those younger than 25, after which it declined between the ages of 25 and 34. Many women become mothers between the ages of 25 and 34, and women in those generations usually reduced their working hours or stopped working altogether. In younger generations, by contrast, this happens less often and women are more likely to continue working and to work more hours.
Hardly any change in men’s economic independence between ages of 25 and 49
In each generation of men, the number who are economically independent increases up to the age of 25, and then changes little until the age of 50, after which it declines. There is no decline in economic independence among men around the age at which they generally become a father. They are more likely to continue working full-time after the birth of their first child. The decline that starts at the age of 50 is because more and more men become reliant on social benefits because they are no longer able to work or lose their job. Early retirement also plays a role in older generations.
Economically independent men
Leeftijd
Born before 1930 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1930-1944 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1945-1959 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1960-1974 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1975-1989 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
Born in 1990 or after (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
20
45.9
41.4
56.9
63.5
21
55.5
58.6
68.5
69.7
22
59.9
70.7
75.1
73.6
23
67.7
76.3
78.3
76.8
24
71.8
79.4
79.7
79.7
25
76.1
81.8
81.8
82.1
26
79.3
83.7
83.4
83.8
27
81.7
85.0
84.3
85.0
28
83.2
85.4
84.1
85.6
29
84.7
85.9
84.8
85.8
30
85.7
86.1
85.5
86.5
31
86.3
86.4
85.7
87.3
32
86.4
86.4
85.8
33
89.9
86.2
86.8
86.0
34
90.0
87.1
87.3
85.7
35
90.4
86.7
87.8
85.6
36
90.7
86.6
87.9
85.6
37
89.4
86.2
87.7
85.6
38
89.3
85.7
87.3
85.8
39
89.5
86.2
87.2
85.9
40
88.0
86.3
86.7
86.1
41
87.3
86.2
86.4
86.1
42
86.7
86.0
85.9
86.1
43
86.4
86.2
86.0
85.9
44
84.7
86.2
85.7
85.7
45
84.7
85.9
85.3
86.0
46
84.7
85.4
85.0
86.2
47
83.5
84.9
84.6
48
85.9
82.7
84.6
84.1
49
84.5
81.6
84.6
83.6
50
84.9
80.2
84.1
83.1
51
83.6
78.4
83.6
82.6
52
80.2
76.8
82.9
82.2
53
78.1
76.0
81.9
81.8
54
77.7
74.3
80.9
81.4
55
75.5
72.5
79.5
80.9
56
70.9
68.6
77.5
80.4
57
69.5
64.6
75.5
79.7
58
67.2
59.0
73.6
78.7
59
61.9
52.9
71.1
77.2
60
55.1
45.1
67.4
75.9
61
41.7
33.3
61.4
74.2
62
32.5
24.9
54.7
63
26.3
19.8
46.2
64
22.0
18.1
45.3
Economically independent men
Leeftijd
Born before 1930 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1930-1944 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1945-1959 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1960-1974 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
1975-1989 (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
Born in 1990 or after (% of those aged between 15 and state pension age (not in education))
20
45.9
41.4
56.9
63.5
21
55.5
58.6
68.5
69.7
22
59.9
70.7
75.1
73.6
23
67.7
76.3
78.3
76.8
24
71.8
79.4
79.7
79.7
25
76.1
81.8
81.8
82.1
26
79.3
83.7
83.4
83.8
27
81.7
85.0
84.3
85.0
28
83.2
85.4
84.1
85.6
29
84.7
85.9
84.8
85.8
30
85.7
86.1
85.5
86.5
31
86.3
86.4
85.7
87.3
32
86.4
86.4
85.8
33
89.9
86.2
86.8
86.0
34
90.0
87.1
87.3
85.7
35
90.4
86.7
87.8
85.6
36
90.7
86.6
87.9
85.6
37
89.4
86.2
87.7
85.6
38
89.3
85.7
87.3
85.8
39
89.5
86.2
87.2
85.9
40
88.0
86.3
86.7
86.1
41
87.3
86.2
86.4
86.1
42
86.7
86.0
85.9
86.1
43
86.4
86.2
86.0
85.9
44
84.7
86.2
85.7
85.7
45
84.7
85.9
85.3
86.0
46
84.7
85.4
85.0
86.2
47
83.5
84.9
84.6
48
85.9
82.7
84.6
84.1
49
84.5
81.6
84.6
83.6
50
84.9
80.2
84.1
83.1
51
83.6
78.4
83.6
82.6
52
80.2
76.8
82.9
82.2
53
78.1
76.0
81.9
81.8
54
77.7
74.3
80.9
81.4
55
75.5
72.5
79.5
80.9
56
70.9
68.6
77.5
80.4
57
69.5
64.6
75.5
79.7
58
67.2
59.0
73.6
78.7
59
61.9
52.9
71.1
77.2
60
55.1
45.1
67.4
75.9
61
41.7
33.3
61.4
74.2
62
32.5
24.9
54.7
63
26.3
19.8
46.2
64
22.0
18.1
45.3
Difference among men below the age of 25 and above 60
The share of economically independent men has varied much less between successive generations than it has among women, and it has increased the most among men aged 60 and over. This is related to government policies to discourage them from exiting the labour force early, which also apply to women. In generations born after 1975, men younger than 25 are more likely to be economically independent than those of earlier generations.
